Home  ›  How to Know if You Have Dislexia

How to Know if You Have Dislexia

Written By Friday, 11 March 2022 Add Comment Edit

Specific learning disability characterized by troubles with reading

Medical condition

Dyslexia
Other names Reading disorder, alexia
Dyslexia handwriting Greek.jpg
Dyslexic handwriting in Greek
Specialty Neurology, pediatrics
Symptoms Trouble reading[one]
Usual onset School historic period[2]
Types Surface dyslexia
Causes Genetic and environmental factors[2]
Risk factors Family history, attending arrears hyperactivity disorder[3]
Diagnostic method Series memory, spelling, vision, and reading test[4]
Differential diagnosis Hearing or vision bug, insufficient teaching[2]
Handling Adjusting teaching methods[1]
Frequency 3–7%[2] [5]

Dyslexia, also known every bit reading disorder, is a disorder characterized by reading below the expected level for their historic period.[1] [6] Different people are afflicted to different degrees.[3] Bug may include difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, "sounding out" words in the head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and agreement what ane reads.[3] [seven] Often these difficulties are get-go noticed at school.[2] When someone who previously could read loses their ability, it is known as alexia.[3] The difficulties are involuntary and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn.[three] People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention arrears hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental language disorders, and difficulties with numbers.[two] [8]

Dyslexia is believed to exist acquired past the interaction of genetic and environmental factors.[2] Some cases run in families.[three] Dyslexia that develops due to a traumatic brain injury, stroke, or dementia is called "acquired dyslexia".[ane] The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia result from differences inside the encephalon's language processing.[three] Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of retention, vision, spelling, and reading skills.[iv] Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused past hearing or vision problems or past bereft education or opportunity to learn.[two]

Treatment involves adjusting educational activity methods to meet the person'due south needs.[1] While non curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the caste or impact of symptoms.[9] Treatments targeting vision are non effective.[x] Dyslexia is the most common learning inability and occurs in all areas of the earth.[eleven] It affects 3–7% of the population;[2] [5] still, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.[12] While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys,[two] information technology has been suggested that it affects men and women as.[11] Some believe that dyslexia should be best considered as a different style of learning, with both benefits and downsides.[13] [14]

Classification

Dyslexia is divided into developmental and caused forms. This article is primarily nearly developmental dyslexia, i.e., dyslexia that begins in early childhood.[15] Caused dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of the developmental disorder, but requiring different assessment strategies and handling approaches.[16] Pure alexia, also known as agnosic alexia or pure give-and-take incomprehension, is one form of alexia which makes up "the peripheral dyslexia" grouping.[17]

Signs and symptoms

In early on babyhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness.[10] A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.[18] These behaviors are seen in many children every bit they learn to read and write, and are non considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.[10]

School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit signs of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting the number of syllables in words–both of which depend on phonological sensation.[19] They may also prove difficulty in segmenting words into private sounds (such every bit sounding out the three sounds of k, a, and t in cat) or may struggle to alloy sounds, indicating reduced phonemic awareness.[20]

Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.[21] : 647 People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a characteristic sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia, which depends on the skill of orthographic coding.[10]

Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia tin often read with expert comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words–a measure of phonological awareness.[22]

Associated weather condition

Dyslexia frequently co-occurs with other learning disorders, merely the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.[23] These associated disabilities include:

Dysgraphia
A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with eye–hand coordination; it likewise tin impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such every bit tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks.[24] In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing automaticity, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual give-and-take forming, which makes it more hard to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.[24]
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attending, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.[25] Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.[5] [26] [27] Approximately xv%[10] or 12–24% of people with dyslexia accept ADHD;[28] and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.[x]
Auditory processing disorder
A listening disorder that affects the ability to procedure auditory information.[29] [30] This can lead to bug with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia take auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.[31] [32]
Developmental coordination disorder
A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor command, kinesthetic coordination, difficulty in the use of voice communication sounds, problems with short-term memory, and organization.[33]

Causes

Inferior parietal lobule – superior view blitheness

Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological ground of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881.[34] [35] For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to run into letters conspicuously to abnormal development of their visual nervus cells.[36]

Neuroanatomy

Neuroimaging techniques, such every bit functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), accept shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties.[37] Some people with dyslexia bear witness less electrical activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the inferior frontal gyrus, junior parietal lobule, and the eye and ventral temporal cortex.[31] Over the past decade, encephalon activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of linguistic communication. Neural bases for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal brusque-term memory components accept been proposed,[38] with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is chore-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia bespeak an interactive office of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex equally well as other brain structures in reading.[39] [forty]

The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that damage of cerebellum-controlled muscle move affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia feel. The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading.[41] The fact that some children with dyslexia take motor job and remainder impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar function in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported past controlled inquiry studies.[42]

Genetics

Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in mail-autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia.[36] Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias, and more rarely, vascular micro-malformations, and microgyrus—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus.[43] The previously cited studies and others[44] propose that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development, may accept acquired the abnormalities. Abnormal prison cell formations in people with dyslexia have as well been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.[45] Several genes take been associated with dyslexia, including DCDC2[46] and KIAA0319[47] on chromosome 6, and DYX1C1 on chromosome fifteen.[48]

Gene–surround interaction

The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using twin studies, which judge the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of ecology factors such as parental teaching[49] and teaching quality[50] accept determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments.[51] All the same, more than optimal conditions may merely permit those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors take been minimized.[51]

Every bit environment plays a large office in learning and memory, it is probable that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability. Measures of gene expression, histone modifications, and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for awarding to the human encephalon.[52] [53]

Language

The orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how hard information technology is to learn to read it.[54] : 266 English and French have comparatively "deep" phonemic orthographies inside the Latin alphabet writing system, with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: alphabetic character-sound correspondence, syllables, and morphemes.[55] : 421 Languages such every bit Spanish, Italian and Finnish primarily apply letter of the alphabet-sound correspondence—so-chosen "shallow" orthographies—which makes them easier to acquire for people with dyslexia.[54] : 266 Logographic writing systems, such as Chinese characters, accept all-encompassing symbol use; and these also pose issues for dyslexic learners.[56]

Pathophysiology

Corpus callosum view, front part at superlative of image

For most people who are right-manus dominant, the left hemisphere of their brain is more than specialized for language processing. With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia. In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres.[57]

Information via improvidence tensor MRI betoken changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language. Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.[57] Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are beingness used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia, thus identifying the effects of dyslexia-related genes.[58]

Dual route theory

The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s.[59] This theory suggests that 2 split mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud.[60] 1 machinery is the lexical road, which is the procedure whereby skilled readers tin can recognize known words by sight solitary, through a "dictionary" lookup procedure.[61] The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical road, which is the process whereby the reader tin can "sound out" a written word.[61] [62] This is done by identifying the give-and-take's constituent parts (letters, phonemes, graphemes) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how a string of neighboring letters audio together.[59] The dual-route system could explicate the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (east.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers).[54] [63]

Diagnosis

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.[64] [65] Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (phonological processing); and verbal working retentivity deficits.[66] [67]

Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a learning disorder with harm in reading (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" to "learning disorder"; DSM-5 uses "specific").[68] [69] [lxx] Dyslexia is non a trouble with intelligence. Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties.[71] The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia every bit "difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding".[ane]

The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling" and is characterized by "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed".[72] Phonological sensation enables ane to identify, discriminate, call back (working memory), and mentally dispense the sound structures of linguistic communication—phonemes, onsite-rime segments, syllables, and words.[73] [74]

Assessment

In assessing the individual for this disorder the post-obit are several things that tin be done.

A multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(south) and instructor(s), school psychologist, pediatrician, and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist), and occupational therapist.[75]

Take familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones, and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognize rhyming words; identify the initial sounds in words).[76]

Tests should non be relied on exclusively. Careful observation of the child in the schoolhouse and dwelling house environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as of import as tests.[77] [78]

Look at the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) arroyo,[79] which "... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a program of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the about demand are those who neglect to reply to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach."[80]

Cess tests

There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility that a person might take dyslexia.[81] If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder.[82] Some tests tin can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized grooming and are given by psychologists.[83] Some test results indicate how to behave out teaching strategies.[83] [84] Considering a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations tin include:[85]

  • General measures of cerebral ability, such equally the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. Depression general cognitive ability would make reading more than difficult. Cerebral power measures also often endeavour to measure different cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working retentivity, and processing speed. In that location are different versions of these tests for different historic period groups. Nearly all of these require additional grooming to give and score correctly, and are washed past psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cerebral tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.[86]
  • Screening or evaluation for mental wellness weather condition: Parents and teachers tin complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people sometime enough to read reasonably well (oftentimes eleven years and older) to consummate. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. All of these take nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person'south age and biological sexual practice. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such every bit the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). Screening uses cursory tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, only they ofttimes go faux positive scores for people who practice not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up past a more accurate examination or diagnostic interview every bit a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times college in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, also.[87] [88] [89] [90]
  • Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking <16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such equally the Iowa Tests of Educational Evolution, that a teacher may requite to a grouping or whole classroom of younger people at the aforementioned time. They too could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the Broad Range Achievement Test, or the Woodcock-Johnson (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests once again require more specialized training.[91] [92] [93]

Screening

Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis meliorate than whatsoever test.[94] In primary school (ages v–seven), the ideal screening procedure consist of training primary schoolhouse teachers to advisedly observe and tape their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly.[95] [96] When teachers place such students they tin can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the Phonics screening check [97] used by United Kingdom schools during Year ane.

In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist Yard. Due south. Thambirajah emphasizes that "[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should exist systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental exam, and obtaining a school report regarding bookish and social performance.[98]

Management

Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write.[99] There are techniques and technical aids that assist to manage or muffle symptoms of the disorder.[100] Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension.[101] For dyslexia intervention with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child'southward sensation of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by instruction how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone.[102] Early on intervention tin exist successful in reducing reading failure.[103]

Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such equally Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic) help with reading.[104] Children with dyslexia read text set in a regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly, and they evidence a preference for regular fonts over especially-tailored fonts.[104] Some research has pointed to increased letter-spacing being beneficial.[104]

There is currently no evidence showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of adolescents with dyslexia.[105]

Prognosis

Dyslexic children require special pedagogy for word analysis and spelling from an early on age.[106] The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in babyhood and receive support from friends and family unit.[1] The New York educational system (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterrupted xc-minute block of instruction in reading", furthermore "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency" and then as to improve the individual's reading ability.[107]

Epidemiology

The percentage of people with dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to exist equally low as v% and as high as 17% of the population.[108] While it is diagnosed more ofttimes in males,[two] some believe that it affects males and females equally.

There are unlike definitions of dyslexia used throughout the globe, but despite pregnant differences in writing systems, dyslexia occurs in different populations.[109] Dyslexia is non limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may accept difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings.[110] [111] The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character tin represent an individual phoneme.[112]

The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the human relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced past orthography.[113]

History

Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881,[34] but the term dyslexia was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin, an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart.[114] [115] [116] He used the term to refer to the example of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects.[117] In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British md from Seaford, East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness".[118] The stardom between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance.[119] Over time, we have changed from the intelligence-based model to the age-based model, in terms of those with Dyslexia.[120] [84]

Society and culture

Every bit is the case with whatever disorder, order often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a outcome of didactics, rather than a neurological disability. Every bit a event, gild frequently misjudges those with the disorder.[101] At that place is too sometimes a workplace stigma and negative mental attitude towards those with dyslexia.[121] If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a kid with the status, there is often a negative issue on the student's learning participation.[122]

Since at to the lowest degree the 1960s in the United kingdom, the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia take consistently been from privileged families.[123] Although one-half of prisoners in the UK have meaning reading difficulties, very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia.[123] Admission to some special educational resources and funding is contingent upon having a diagnosis of dyslexia.[123] As a result, when Staffordshire and Warwickshire proposed in 2018 to teach reading to all children with reading difficulties, using techniques proven to be successful for most children with a diagnosis of dyslexia, without first requiring the families to obtain an official diagnosis, dyslexia advocates and parents of children with dyslexia were fearful that they were losing a privileged condition.[123]

Research

Most dyslexia research relates to alphabetic writing systems, and peculiarly to European languages.[124] Still, substantial enquiry is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Standard arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages.[125] The outward expression of individuals, with reading disability and regular poor readers is the same in some respects.[126]

Run into besides

  • Dyscalculia, difficulty comprehending numbers and math
  • Learning to read
  • Orton-Gillingham

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g "Dyslexia Information Page". National Constitute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. 2 Nov 2018.
  2. ^ a b c d due east f thousand h i j g Peterson, Robin L.; Pennington, Bruce F. (May 2012). "Developmental dyslexia". Lancet. 379 (9830): 1997–2007. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6. PMC3465717. PMID 22513218.
  3. ^ a b c d east f thousand "What are reading disorders?". National Institutes of Wellness. 1 Dec 2016.
  4. ^ a b "How are reading disorders diagnosed?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on two Apr 2015. Retrieved fifteen March 2015.
  5. ^ a b c Kooij, J. J. Sandra (2013). Adult ADHD diagnostic assessment and handling (third ed.). London: Springer. p. 83. ISBN9781447141389. Archived from the original on 30 Apr 2016.
  6. ^ Siegel LS (November 2006). "Perspectives on dyslexia". Paediatrics & Child Health. 11 (9): 581–seven. doi:10.1093/pch/11.9.581. PMC2528651. PMID 19030329.
  7. ^ "What are the symptoms of reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. one December 2016.
  8. ^ Sexton, Chris C.; Gelhorn, Heather Fifty.; Bell, Jill A.; Classi, Peter M. (Nov 2012). "The Co-occurrence of Reading Disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, Handling, Psychosocial Touch on, and Economic Burden". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 45 (6): 538–564. doi:10.1177/0022219411407772. PMID 21757683. S2CID 385238.
  9. ^ "What are mutual treatments for reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 Apr 2015. Retrieved xv March 2015.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Handler, SM; Fierson, WM; Section on, Ophthalmology; Council on Children with, Disabilities; American Academy of, Ophthalmology; American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and, Strabismus; American Association of Certified, Orthoptists (March 2011). "Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision". Pediatrics. 127 (iii): e818–56. doi:ten.1542/peds.2010-3670. PMID 21357342.
  11. ^ a b Umphred, Darcy Ann; Lazaro, Rolando T.; Roller, Margaret; Burton, Gordon (2013). Neurological Rehabilitation. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 383. ISBN978-0-323-26649-9. Archived from the original on 9 Jan 2017.
  12. ^ "How many people are affected by/at hazard for reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  13. ^ Venton, Danielle (September 2011). "The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia". Wired. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved ten August 2016.
  14. ^ Mathew, Schneps (August 2014). "The Advantages of Dyslexia". ScientificAmerican.com. Scientific American. Archived from the original on four August 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
  15. ^ Oxford English language Dictionary. 3rd ed. "dyslexia, n. Oxford, U.k.: Oxford University Press, 2012 ("a learning disability specifically affecting the attainment of literacy, with difficulty esp. in word recognition, spelling, and the conversion of letters to sounds, occurring in a child with otherwise normal development, and at present usually regarded every bit a neurodevelopmental disorder with a genetic component.")
  16. ^ Woollams, Anna M. (19 January 2014). "Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia". Philosophical Transactions of the Purple Society B: Biological Sciences. 369 (1634): 20120398. doi:x.1098/rstb.2012.0398. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC3866427. PMID 24324241.
  17. ^ Coslett HB (2000). "Caused dyslexia". Semin Neurol. 20 (four): 419–26. doi:10.1055/southward-2000-13174. PMID 11149697.
  18. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Lynn, Steven Jay; Ruscio, John; Beyerstein, Barry L. (15 September 2011). 50 Bang-up Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 88–89. ISBN978-1-4443-6074-v. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  19. ^ "Dyslexia and Related Disorders" (PDF). Alabama Dyslexia Association. International Dyslexia Clan. Jan 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  20. ^ Peer, Lindsay; Reid, Gavin (2014). Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia. Routledge. p. 219. ISBN978-one-136-60899-5. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  21. ^ Shaywitz, Sally E.; Shaywitz, Bennett A. (2013). "Chapter 34 Making a Hidden Disability Visible: What Has Been Learned from Neurobiological Studies of Dyslexia". In Swanson, H. Lee; Harris, Karen R.; Graham, Steve (eds.). Handbook of Learning Disabilities (2 ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN978-i-4625-0856-3. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  22. ^ Jarrad, Lum (October 2013). "Procedural learning is dumb in dyslexia: bear witness from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies". Research in Developmental Disabilities. 34 (10): 3460–76. doi:ten.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017. PMC3784964. PMID 23920029.
  23. ^ Nicolson, R. I.; Fawcett, A. J. (September 2009). "Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum". Cortex. 47 (one): 117–27. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.016. PMID 19818437. S2CID 32228208.
  24. ^ a b Reynolds, Cecil R.; Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine (2 January 2007). Encyclopedia of Special Education. John Wiley & Sons. p. 771. ISBN978-0-471-67798-7.
  25. ^ "Attention Arrears Hyperactivity Disorder". NIH: National Institute of Mental Wellness. March 2016. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
  26. ^ Comer, Ronald (2011). Psychology Around United states. RR Donnelley. p. 1. ISBN978-0-471-38519-six. Archived from the original on iv June 2016.
  27. ^ Germanò, E; Gagliano, A; Curatolo, P (2010). "Comorbidity of ADHD and Dyslexia" (PDF). Developmental Neuropsychology. 35 (5): 475–493. doi:x.1080/87565641.2010.494748. PMID 20721770. S2CID 42046958.
  28. ^ Fatemi, Southward. Hossein; Sartorius, Norman; Clayton, Paula J. (2008). The Medical Basis of Psychiatry (3 ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 308. ISBN978-1-59745-252-half dozen. Archived from the original on 9 Jan 2017.
  29. ^ Capellini, Simone Aparecida (2007). Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities. Nova Publishers. p. 94. ISBN978-ane-60021-537-vii. Archived from the original on 9 Jan 2017.
  30. ^ Moore, D. R. (July 2011). "The diagnosis and management of auditory processing disorder". Language, Spoken language, and Hearing Services in Schools. 42 (3): 303–8. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0032). PMID 21757566.
  31. ^ a b Pammer, Kristen (January 2014). "Encephalon mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers". Scientifica. 2014: 802741. doi:10.1155/2014/802741. PMC3913493. PMID 24527259.
  32. ^ Law, J (2014). "human relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8: 482. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482. PMC4078926. PMID 25071512.
  33. ^ Susan J. Pickering (2012). "Affiliate two. Working Memory in Dyslexia". In Alloway, Tracy Packiam; Gathercole, Susan Due east. (eds.). Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Psychology Press. ISBN978-1-135-42134-two. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  34. ^ a b Berkhan O (1917). "Über die Wortblindheit, ein Stammeln im Sprechen und Schreiben, ein Fehl im Lesen" [About word blindness, adyslalia of speech and writing, a weakness in reading]. Neurologisches Centralblatt (in German). 36: 914–27.
  35. ^ Reid, Gavin; Fawcett, Angela; Manis, Frank; Siegel, Linda (2008). The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia. SAGE Publications. p. 127. ISBN978-1-84860-037-9. Archived from the original on 9 Jan 2017.
  36. ^ a b Stein, John (2014). "Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention". Current Developmental Disorders Reports. 1 (4): 267–fourscore. doi:ten.1007/s40474-014-0030-six. PMC4203994. PMID 25346883.
  37. ^ Whitaker, Harry A. (2010). Curtailed Encyclopedia of Encephalon and Language. Elsevier. p. 180. ISBN978-0-08-096499-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  38. ^ Cost, cathy (sixteen August 2012). "A Review and Synthesis of the first 20 years of Pet and fMRI studies of heard Speech, Spoken Language and Reading". NeuroImage. 62 (2): 816–847. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062. PMC3398395. PMID 22584224.
  39. ^ Sharifi, Southward (May 2014). "Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review". NeuroImage: Clinical. v: 217–231. doi:x.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003. PMC4110352. PMID 25068111.
  40. ^ Brandler, William (February 2014). "The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders". Trends in Molecular Medicine. 20 (2): 83–90. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2013.x.008. PMC3969300. PMID 24275328.
  41. ^ Cain, Kate (2010). Reading development and difficulties (1st ed.). TJ International. p. 134. ISBN9781405151559 . Retrieved 21 March 2015.
  42. ^ Levav, Itzhak (2009). Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in State of israel: From Epidemiology to Mental health. Green Publishing. p. 52. ISBN9789652294685 . Retrieved 21 March 2015.
  43. ^ Faust, Miriam (2012). The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Linguistic communication. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 941–43. ISBN978-1-4443-3040-three. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  44. ^ Benitez, A (Nov 2010). "Neurobiology and neurogenetics of dyslexia". Neurology (In Spanish). 25 (ix): 563–81. doi:ten.1016/j.nrl.2009.12.010. PMID 21093706.
  45. ^ Kere, Julia (September 2014). "The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 452 (ii): 236–43. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102. PMID 25078623.
  46. ^ Marshall, Chloë R. (2012). Current Issues in Developmental Disorders. Psychology Printing. pp. 53–56. ISBN978-1-136-23067-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  47. ^ Paracchini S, Thomas A, Castro S, Lai C, Paramasivam M, Wang Y, Keating B J, Taylor J M, Hacking D F, Scerri T, Francks C, Richardson A J, Wade-Martins R, Stein J F, Knight J C, Copp A J, LoTurco J, Monaco A P (15 May 2006). "The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319, a novel gene involved in neuronal migration". Human Molecular Genetics. 15 (10): 1659–1666. doi:x.1093/hmg/ddl089. PMID 16600991. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  48. ^ Rosen, Glenn D. (2013). The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery. Psychology Printing. p. 342. ISBN978-ane-134-81550-0. Archived from the original on nine January 2017.
  49. ^ Friend, A; Defries, J. C.; Olson, R. K. (Nov 2008). "Parental Education Moderates Genetic Influences on Reading Disability". Psychol. Sci. xix (xi): 1124–30. doi:x.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x. PMC2605635. PMID 19076484.
  50. ^ Taylor, J.; Roehrig, A. D.; Hensler, B. Soden; Connor, C. Grand.; Schatschneider, C. (2010). "Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading". Science. 328 (5977): 512–4. Bibcode:2010Sci...328..512T. doi:10.1126/science.1186149. PMC2905841. PMID 20413504.
  51. ^ a b Pennington, Bruce F.; McGrath, Lauren Chiliad.; Rosenberg, Jenni; Barnard, Holly; Smith, Shelley D.; Willcutt, Erik G.; Friend, Angela; Defries, John C.; Olson, Richard K. (January 2009). "Gene × Environment Interactions in Reading Disability and Attention-Arrears/Hyperactivity Disorder". Developmental Psychology. 45 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1037/a0014549. PMC2743891. PMID 19209992.
  52. ^ Roth, Tania Fifty.; Roth, Eric D.; Sweatt, J. David (September 2010). "Epigenetic regulation of genes in learning and memory". Essays in Biochemistry. 48 (1): 263–74. doi:x.1042/bse0480263. PMID 20822498. S2CID 23229766.
  53. ^ Smith, Shelley D. (December 2011). "Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders". Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. 3 (four): 356–364. doi:10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y. ISSN 1866-1947. PMC3261263. PMID 22113455.
  54. ^ a b c Paulesu, Eraldo; Brunswick, Nicola and Paganelli, Federica (2010). "Cross-cultural differences in unimpaired and dyslexic reading: Behavioral and functional anatomical observations in readers of regular and irregular orthographies. Chapter 12 in Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies Archived 9 Jan 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Eds. Nicola Brunswick, Siné McDougall, and Paul de Mornay Davies. Psychology Press. ISBN 9781135167813
  55. ^ Juel, Connie (2013). "The Impact of Early School Experiences on Initial Reading". In David K. Dickinson; Susan B. Neuman (eds.). Handbook of Early on Literacy Inquiry. Guilford Publications. ISBN978-one-4625-1470-0. Archived from the original on nine January 2017.
  56. ^ Snowling, Margaret J; Hulme, Charles (1 May 2012). "Annual Inquiry Review: The nature and classification of reading disorders – a commentary on proposals for DSM-5". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Centrolineal Disciplines. 53 (5): 593–607. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x. PMC3492851. PMID 22141434.
  57. ^ a b Habib, Michael (2013). "Dyslexia". Pediatric Neurology Office I. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 111. pp. 229–235. doi:x.1016/B978-0-444-52891-9.00023-3. ISBN9780444528919. PMID 23622168. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
  58. ^ Schumacher, Johannes; Hoffmann, Per; Schmäl, Christine; Schulte‐Körne, Gerd; Nöthen, Markus One thousand (2007). "Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape". Journal of Medical Genetics. 44 (5): 289–297. doi:x.1136/jmg.2006.046516. PMC2597981. PMID 17307837.
  59. ^ a b Pritchard SC, Coltheart M, Palethorpe S, Castles A; Coltheart; Palethorpe; Castles (October 2012). "Nonword reading: comparing dual-route cascaded and connectionist dual-process models with human data". J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 38 (five): 1268–88. doi:10.1037/a0026703. PMID 22309087. {{cite periodical}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ Eysenck, Michael; Keane, Marking T. (2013). Cerebral Psychology 6e. Psychology Printing. p. 373. ISBN978-one-134-44046-7. Archived from the original on 9 Jan 2017.
  61. ^ a b Eysenck, Michael; Keane, Mark T. (2013). Cerebral Psychology 6e. Psychology Printing. p. 450. ISBN978-one-134-44046-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  62. ^ Hulme, Charles; Joshi, R. Malatesha; Snowling, Margaret J. (2012). Reading and Spelling: Evolution and Disorders. Routledge. p. 151. ISBN978-1-136-49807-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  63. ^ Sprenger-Charolles, Liliane (2011). "Prevalence and Reliability of Phonological, Surface, and Mixed Profiles in Dyslexia: A Review of Studies Conducted in Languages Varying in Orthographic Depth". Scientific Studies of Reading. fifteen (six): 498–521. doi:10.1080/10888438.2010.524463. S2CID 15227374. Archived from the original on thirty Baronial 2017.
  64. ^ Boada, Richard; Willcutt, Erik 1000.; Pennington, Bruce F. (2012). "Understanding the Comorbidity Between Dyslexia and Attending-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Topics in Language Disorders. 32 (iii): 270. doi:10.1097/tld.0b013e31826203ac. S2CID 43200465. ... Pennington proposed a multiple deficit model for complex disorders like dyslexia, hypothesizing that such complex disorders are heterogeneous atmospheric condition that arise from the additive and interactive effects of multiple genetic and environmental take chances factors, which so lead to weaknesses in multiple cognitive domains.
  65. ^ Pennington, B (September 2006). "From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders". Cognition. 101 (ii): 385–413. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008. PMID 16844106. S2CID 7433822.
  66. ^ Peterson, Robin L.; Pennington, Bruce F. (28 March 2015). "Developmental Dyslexia". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. xi (1): 283–307. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842. PMID 25594880. SSRN 2588407.
  67. ^ Snowling, Margaret J. Dyslexia: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford Academy Press, 2019. ISBN 9780192550422
  68. ^ "6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading". International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Issues, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Bloodshed and Morbidity Statistics). Earth Health Organization. Retrieved 7 Oct 2019.
  69. ^ Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-five . DSM-5 Chore Strength. (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Clan. 2013. ISBN9780890425541. OCLC 830807378. Specific Learning Disorder with impairment in reading ... Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a blueprint of learning difficulties characterized by issues with authentic or fluent discussion recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  70. ^ FragaGonzález, Gorka; Karipidis, Iliana; Tijms, Jurgen (xix October 2018). "Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes Information technology Different from a Chess Disorder". Brain Sciences. 8 (10): 189. doi:10.3390/brainsci8100189. ISSN 2076-3425. PMC6209961. PMID 30347764.
  71. ^ Campbell, Robert Jean (2009). Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary. Oxford University Press. pp. 310–312. ISBN978-0-19-534159-1. Archived from the original on ix January 2017.
  72. ^ Phillips, Sylvia; Kelly, Kathleen; Symes, Liz (2013). Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties. SAGE. p. 7. ISBN978-1-4462-8704-0. Archived from the original on ix Jan 2017.
  73. ^ Stahl, Steven A.; Murray, Bruce A. (1994). "Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading". Periodical of Educational Psychology. 86 (two): 221–234. doi:ten.1037/0022-0663.86.ii.221.
  74. ^ Rvachew, Susan; Ohberg, Alyssa; Grawburg, Meghann; Heyding, Joan (1 November 2003). "Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Perception in 4-Year-Old Children With Delayed Expressive Phonology Skills". American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 12 (iv): 463–471. doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2003/092). PMID 14658998. S2CID 16983189.
  75. ^ Catherine Christo, John M. Davis, and Stephen E. Brock, Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Dyslexia at School (New York: Springer Scientific discipline+Business organization Media, 2009), 59.
  76. ^ Mather, Nancy and Barbara J. Wendling. Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Intervention. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
  77. ^ Reid, Gavin and Jennie Guise. The Dyslexia Assessment. London: Bloomsbury, 2017 ("... cess for dyslexia includes more than tests; it involves comprehensive insights into the student's learning. This requires a total and comprehensive individual assessment as well as consideration of the environs and contextual factors.").
  78. ^ M. S. Thambirajah, Developmental Assessment of the School-Aged Child with Developmental Disabilities: A Clinician's Guide (London: Jessica Kingsley, 2011), 74.
  79. ^ Jimerson, Shane R., Matthew Yard. Burns, and Amanda K. VanDerHeyden. Handbook of Response to Intervention: The Science and Practice of Multi-Tiered Systems of Back up. 2nd ed. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2016.
  80. ^ Snowling Margaret J (2013). "Early Identification and Interventions for Dyslexia: A Contemporary View". Periodical of Inquiry in Special Educational Needs. xiii (1): seven–xiv. doi:10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.ten. PMC4538781. PMID 26290655.
  81. ^ "Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  82. ^ Peer, Lindsay; Reid, Gavin (2013). Introduction to Dyslexia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 35–40. ISBN978-ane-135-37290-three. Archived from the original on nine January 2017.
  83. ^ a b "Screening and assessment". British Dyslexia Clan. Archived from the original on 30 March 2015. Retrieved 11 March 2015.
  84. ^ a b FLETCHER, JACK M. (2009). "Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept". Periodical of the International Neuropsychological Lodge : JINS. 15 (4): 501–508. doi:ten.1017/S1355617709090900. ISSN 1355-6177. Retrieved i March 2022.
  85. ^ Schulte-Körne, Gerd (October 2010). "The Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Dyslexia". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 107 (41): 718–727. doi:ten.3238/arztebl.2010.0718. ISSN 1866-0452. PMC2967798. PMID 21046003.
  86. ^ Mather, N., & Schneider, D. The use of intelligence tests in the diagnosis of specific reading inability.Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A. (2014). Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts. Springer. pp. 415–434. ISBN9781493915620 . Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  87. ^ Collett, Brent R.; Ohan, Jeneva 50.; Myers, Kathleen G. (i September 2003). "Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attending-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Journal of the American University of Child & Boyish Psychiatry. 42 (9): 1015–1037. doi:10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 12960702. Retrieved iii October 2019.
  88. ^ Stone, Lisanne L; Janssens, January M A M; Vermulst, Ad A; Van Der Maten, Marloes; Engels, Rutger C K E; Otten, Roy (20 February 2015). "The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4–seven". BMC Psychology. 3 (one): 4. doi:10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8. ISSN 2050-7283. PMC4364334. PMID 25815194.
  89. ^ Swart, G. T. (2005). "The Clinician'due south Guide to the Behavior Cess System For Children". The Canadian Child and Boyish Psychiatry Review. fourteen (3): 90. ISSN 1716-9119. PMC2542918.
  90. ^ Birmaher, B.; Khetarpal, Due south.; Brent, D.; Cully, M.; Balach, L.; Kaufman, J.; Neer, S. M. (1997). "The Screen for Kid Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): calibration structure and psychometric characteristics". Periodical of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 36 (4): 545–553. doi:10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 9100430.
  91. ^ Lindquist, E. F. (1953). The Iowa tests of educational development: how to use the test results; a manual for teachers and counselors. Scientific discipline Enquiry Associates. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
  92. ^ Dell, Cindy Ann; Harrold, Barbara; Dell, Thomas (1 October 2008). "Test Review: Wilkinson, G. Southward., & Robertson, G. J. (2006). Broad Range Accomplishment Test—Fourth Edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Cess Resources. WRAT4 Introductory Kit (includes manual, 25 test/response forms [blue and green], and accompanying test materials): $243.00". Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin. 52 (1): 57–lx. doi:10.1177/0034355208320076. ISSN 0034-3552. S2CID 145644409.
  93. ^ Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret; Ellison, Phyllis Anne Teeter (2009). Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2nd Edition. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 119. ISBN9780387889634 . Retrieved 3 October 2019.
  94. ^ Catherine Christo, John Thou. Davis, and Stephen Eastward. Brock, Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Dyslexia at Schoolhouse (New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2009), 56. ISBN 9780387885995
  95. ^ Margaret J. Snowling, Dyslexia: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Printing, 2019), 93–94.
  96. ^ Letters and Sounds: Principles and Practice of High Quality Phonics, Ref: DFES-00281-2007 (00281-2007BKT-EN), Primary National Strategy, Department for Education and Skills (Uk), 2007.
  97. ^ "Phonics screening check: 2019 materials". U.k. Department for Educational activity, Standards and Testing Agency . Retrieved 14 Oct 2019.
  98. ^ Thambirajah, Thou. Due south. (2011). Developmental assessment of the school-aged child with developmental disabilities : a clinician's guide. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN9780857003256. OCLC 747410566.
  99. ^ Bogon, Johana (Oct 2014). "TVA based cess of visual attending functions in developmental dyslexia". Frontiers in Psychology. v: 1172. doi:ten.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172. PMC4199262. PMID 25360129.
  100. ^ Brunswick, Nicola (10 April 2012). Supporting Dyslexic Adults in College Educational activity and the Workplace. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 115–. ISBN978-0-470-97479-seven. Archived from the original on 31 Dec 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  101. ^ a b Schulte-Körne, G (Oct 2010). "The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 107 (41): 718–26. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718. PMC2967798. PMID 21046003.
  102. ^ Lyytinen, Heikki; Erskine, Jane; Aro, Mikko and Richardson, Ulla (2009). "Reading and reading disorders". In Hoff, Erika (ed.). Blackwell Handbook of Linguistic communication Development. Blackwell. pp. 454–474. ISBN978-1-4051-9459-iv. Archived from the original on 9 Jan 2017. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (link)
  103. ^ van der Leij, Aryan (ane November 2013). "Dyslexia and early on intervention: what did nosotros learn from the Dutch Dyslexia Programme?". Dyslexia. xix (iv): 241–255. doi:10.1002/dys.1466. ISSN 1099-0909. PMID 24133037.
  104. ^ a b c Kuster, Sanne G.; van Weerdenburg, Marjolijn; Gompel, Marjolein; Bosman, Anna Yard. T. (April 2018). "Dyslexie font does not benefit reading in children with or without dyslexia". Annals of Dyslexia. 68 (one): 25–42. doi:ten.1007/s11881-017-0154-six. ISSN 0736-9387. PMC5934461. PMID 29204931.
  105. ^ Cogo-Moreira, Hugo; Andriolo, Régis B; Yazigi, Latife; Ploubidis, George B; Brandão de Ávila, Clara Regina; Mari, Jair J (fifteen August 2012). "Music education for improving reading skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia" (PDF). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (8): CD009133. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009133.pub2. PMID 22895983.
  106. ^ O'Hare, Anne (2010). "Dyslexia: what practise paediatricians need to know?". Paediatrics and Kid Wellness. twenty (seven): 338–343. doi:x.1016/j.paed.2010.04.004.
  107. ^ "Response to Intervention Guidance – Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) – Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Didactics : P12 : NYSED". p12.nysed.gov . Retrieved 10 Jan 2019.
  108. ^ Tasman, Allan; Kay, Jerald; Lieberman, Jeffrey A.; First, Michael B.; Riba, Michelle (29 Jan 2015). Psychiatry, ii Volume Ready. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN9781118845493. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015.
  109. ^ Protopapas, Athanassios (2013). "From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap". Philosophical Transactions of the Majestic Society B: Biological Sciences. 369 (1634): 20130090. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0090. PMC3866431. PMID 24324245.
  110. ^ Zhao, Jing (November 2014). "The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition". Scientific Reports. 4: 7068. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E7068Z. doi:10.1038/srep07068. PMC4238300. PMID 25412386.
  111. ^ Marshall, Chloe (2012). Current Problems in Developmental Disorders. Psychology Printing. p. 152. ISBN978-one-84872-084-eight. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  112. ^ Garralda, Elena; Raynaud, Jean-Philippe (16 January 2012). Brain, Heed, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood. Jason Aronson. ISBN9780765708663.
  113. ^ Navas, Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto; Ferraz, Érica de Cássia; Borges, Juliana Postigo Amorina; Navas, Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto; Ferraz, Érica de Cássia; Borges, Juliana Postigo Amorina (2014). "Phonological processing deficits equally a universal model for dyslexia: testify from different orthographies". CoDAS. 26 (half-dozen): 509–519. doi:10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135. PMID 25590915.
  114. ^ Berlin, Rudolf. [No title.] Medicinisches Correspondenzblatt des Württembergischen Ärztlichen Landesvereins [Correspondence Canvass of the Württemberg Medical Association] 53 (1883): 209.
  115. ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary. "History and Etymology for dyslexia", s.5. "dyslexia, substantive". Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016.
  116. ^ "Über Dyslexie" [About dyslexia]. Archiv für Psychiatrie. 15: 276–278. 1884.
  117. ^ Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences and Belittling Index: A Yearly Written report of the Progress of the General Sanitary Sciences Throughout the Globe. F. A. Davis Company. 1888. p. 39. Archived from the original on ix January 2017.
  118. ^ Brooks, Patricia (2014). Encyclopedia of language development. SAGE. p. 30. ISBN9781483346434.
  119. ^ Mishra, Srikanta Grand. (Oct 2014). "Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders". Frontiers in Man Neuroscience. 8: 860. doi:x.3389/fnhum.2014.00860. PMC4209830. PMID 25386132.
  120. ^ Al-Shidhani, Thuraya Ahmed; Arora, Vinita (2012). "Understanding Dyslexia in Children through Human Development Theories". Sultan Qaboos Academy Medical Periodical. 12 (three): 286–294. ISSN 2075-051X. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  121. ^ de Berr, J (2014). "Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia". BMC Public Health. 14: 77. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-77. PMC3913008. PMID 24460949.
  122. ^ Pino, Marco; Mortari, Luigina (1 November 2014). "The Inclusion of Students with Dyslexia in College Didactics: A Systematic Review Using Narrative Synthesis". Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 20 (4): 346–369. doi:10.1002/dys.1484. PMC4253321. PMID 25293652.
  123. ^ a b c d Kale, Sirin (17 September 2020). "The Battle over Dyslexia". The Guardian . Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  124. ^ Reid, Gavin (2012). The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN978-1-136-61710-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  125. ^ Richlan, Fabio (May 2014). "Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia; the office of orthographic depth". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. eight: 347. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347. PMC4033006. PMID 24904383.
  126. ^ "Reading Difficulty and Disability" (PDF). written report.nih.gov. NIH. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 Feb 2019. Retrieved 10 Jan 2019.

This article was submitted to WikiJournal of Medicine for external academic peer review in 2018 (reviewer reports). The updated content was reintegrated into the Wikipedia page under a CC-BY-SA-three.0 license (2019). The version of record equally reviewed is: "Dyslexia". WikiJournal of Medicine. 6 (1): 5. xv Oct 2019. doi:10.15347/WJM/2019.005. ISSN 2002-4436. Wikidata Q73053061.

Further reading

  • Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg G, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L (January 2018). "Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 84: 434–452. doi:x.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001. PMID 28797557. S2CID 33176236.
  • Beaton A (fourteen Oct 2004). Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research. Psychology Press. ISBN978-1-135-42275-2.
  • Miles TR (4 August 2006). Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research. Wiley. ISBN978-0-470-02747-9.
  • Reid G, Fawcett A (12 May 2008). Dyslexia in Context: Inquiry, Policy and Exercise. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-470-77801-2.
  • Thomson M (eighteen March 2009). The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-470-74197-nine.
  • Reid G (17 March 2011). Dyslexia (3 ed.). A&C Blackness. ISBN978-1-4411-6585-5.
  • Selikowitz M (2 July 2012). Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties. Oxford Academy Press. ISBN978-0-19-969177-7.
  • Ellis AW (25 February 2014). Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cerebral Analysis. Psychology Press. ISBN978-1-317-71630-three.
  • Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL (24 March 2014). The Dyslexia Debate. Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN978-0-521-11986-iii.
  • Agnew S, Stewart J, Redgrave Southward (8 October 2014). Dyslexia and Usa: A collection of personal stories. Andrews U.k. Express. ISBN978-1-78333-250-2.
  • Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD (February 2015). "Neurobiology of dyslexia". Current Stance in Neurobiology. 30: 73–viii. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007. hdl:1721.i/102416. PMC4293303. PMID 25290881.
  • Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs 5, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert North, Blatow Thousand, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither South, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A (2016). "Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children". Frontiers in Neuroscience. ten: 324. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00324. PMC4945653. PMID 27471442.
  • Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo Ten, Zhang J, Song R (July 2016). "Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Gamble beyond Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population". Scientific Reports. half-dozen: 30454. Bibcode:2016NatSR...630454S. doi:x.1038/srep30454. PMC4964335. PMID 27464509.
  • Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR (August 2016). "Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills". European Journal of Human Genetics. 24 (8): 1137–44. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2015.277. PMC4872837. PMID 26883091.
  • Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F (January 2017). "Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms". Translational Psychiatry. vii (1): e987. doi:x.1038/tp.2016.240. PMC5545717. PMID 28045463.
  • Fraga González G, Žarić M, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW (January 2017). "Contributions of Letter-Spoken language Audio Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Comeback: Bear witness from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies". Brain Sciences. vii (1): 10. doi:10.3390/brainsci7010010. PMC5297299. PMID 28106790.
  • Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC (Oct 2013). "Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific linguistic communication impairment". Epigenetics. 8 (10): 1023–9. doi:10.4161/epi.26026. PMC3891682. PMID 23949389.
  • Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC (2016). "A Review well-nigh Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects". Frontiers in Psychology. 7: 1617. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617. PMC5102880. PMID 27891100.

External links

avitiawhissely1974.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyslexia

0 Response to "How to Know if You Have Dislexia"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel